Dive Into Confucius

Confucius and The Analects

            The critically acclaimed work of Confucius known as The Analects has been widely acknowledged as having the utmost influence on eastern civilization. The Lun Yü (The Analects), a collection of Confucius's sayings compiled after his death, encapsulates the great teacher's philosophy. This work contains Confucius’ thoughts on a wide variety of subjects ranging from proper personal conduct to government rule.  It’s easy to consider Confucius a politician for his day, yet he never actually held an office, or high position. Kong Fuzi, Confucius’s birth name, wanted a type of harmony with the governing body, most likely an individual, and those governed (Regel). The ending of the Zhou Dynasty in China was marred by warring factions within the empire, harsh rule by the power wielding elites, and to some extent, political chaos (Lorenz). The events that transpired around Confucius pushed him to the realization that a virtuous government is imperative, and by utilizing the blueprints of historical figures, sages, and kings a successful reign could indeed be achieved. One thing Confucius was always weary of was

            In order to understand what Confucius stood for you must first understand his roots and the period in which he lived. In a time known as the Spring and Autumn Period, was a book named the Spring and Autumn Annals. It was a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 BC and 481 BC, which tradition associates with Confucius (Regel). It was a period of turbulence and changes in the economy, politics, and military affairs. In Chinese history, it was a period, which roughly corresponds to the first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. During the Spring and Autumn period, China was ruled by a feudal system. The Zhou dynasty kings held insignificant power, but only directly ruled over a small Royal Domain, revolving around their capital. The status of the Emperor was reduced to little more than that of a figurehead, while powerful nobles gradually extended their dominions over smaller neighboring states. According to recorded history, during the Spring and Autumn Period, there were over 480 wars, 52 vassal states were vanquished, and 36 kings were killed (Megaera). For the duration of the Spring and Autumn Period, a complex system of relations developed and many projects requiring the collaboration of two or more states were undertaken, such as drainage operations, canals, dikes, reservoirs, and roads. Massive walls were built, both as protection from each other and from aboriginal and nomadic tribes (Clements). 

            Even though this period was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely (Regel).  The movement known as The Hundred Schools of Thought can characterize the thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period, and has profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries (Megaera). The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. The Spring and Autumn Period was also considered as a period of philosophies: Daoism, Confucianism, and Legalism originated during that period. Many important cultural developments took place, and great Chinese thinkers including Confucius, founder of Confucianism; developed the philosophical systems, which have shaped North Eastern Asia until the present day. 

            Confucius tended to marvel at history, and used it as a foundation to propose his thoughts and beliefs. He found that history could prove to be a guide to establishing a successful government.  Confucius firmly stated that, "If by keeping the old warm one can provide understanding of the new, one is fit to be a teacher" (2:11, Analects). Confucius often taught by pointing to examples of the behaviors of successful and unsuccessful historical figures. He praised legendary heroes like Bo Yi and Shu Qi (5:23, Analects) and Yao and Shun (6:30, Analects). In fact, much of Confucian philosophy was drawn from that of ancient Chinese politicians, kings and legendary figures. Confucius was inspired by the legends of the Sage Kings, and by the early kings and officials of the Chou dynasty. Both Confucius's love of imitating history and his admiration for the Chou rulers are well represented in his statement that "Chou observes the example set by two dynasties, so how splendid is its culture! And we take Chou as our model" (3:14, Analects). The Chou ruling family had invented the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which stated that heaven chose rulers on the basis of their virtue, and if they were not virtuous, they would be overthrown. This Mandate was one of the three things Confucius said the "gentleman holds in awe" (16:8, Analects). Probably the greatest influence on Confucius was the philosophy of the Duke of Chou, whom Confucius described as having "perfect virtue" (8:20, Analects). The Duke advised his nephew, the Emperor, in proper decorum and virtuous behavior, and did not hesitate to criticize and correct the Emperor's behavior. This fits with Confucius's idea of how to serve a ruler: "It means don't be deceitful. But do stand up to him" (14:22, Analects). His ideas were similar enough to Confucius's that he had a saying attributed to him in the Analects. While he supported the idea of government by an all-powerful sage, ruling as an Emperor, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued that language with conviction and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. The idea of standing up to one’s ruler in this period was very risky.  Confucius is seemingly encouraging boldness towards the ruler by his officials, in a period where execution was not absurdly rare. Moreover, "What is called a great minister, is one who serves his prince according to what is right, and when he finds he cannot do so, retires."(11:23, Analects). Again Confucius urges that one most be resolute in understanding the difference between virtue and evil in the midst of a ruler’s actions.

            In the Analects you can see that Confucius has quite the opinion of who should be in charge, and how that person should operate the happenings around him. When asked by a ruler of the large state of Qi, Lu's neighbor on the Shandong peninsula, about the principles of good government, Confucius is reported to have replied: “Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son.” (12:11, Analects) Which seems to be saying that one must not overstep what they are truly capable of doing. He is warning to not bite off more than you can chew; understand where you belong, and what you can do for society.

Above all else Confucius found that a virtuous ruler would inspire his followers to be the same at every level within the Chinese feudal system (Yu). To Confucius an emperor should rule, and his rule should be established through benevolence and high merit. Even though laws and punishments could be instituted, the only true way for people to follow what was good was to see that their leader was good. In other words, Confucius taught that rulers should lead by example, and this was the only way a truly great empire could be created at last. In addition, virtuousness did not exclude all those underneath the Emperor, but also the entire bureaucracy, military, and any other that the Emperor could promote to power. This would enable the class being ruled to confirm that all those in power were benevolent and just, making them want to imitate the favor for the Emperor and statesmen. Confucius instilled that the Emperor was everything for the nation. For all could be in ruin but as long as the people still held faith in their ruler, as long as the people still followed unwaveringly, the state would be secure (Yu). For a military can fall, the people could become weary without food, and many other factors can lead to the downfall of a state. He did not approve of rulers who did not follow the examples of famous sage kings, scholars and culture heroes (7:15, Analects).  Confucius said, “When a prince’s personal conduct is correct, his government is effective without the issuing of orders. If his personal conduct is not correct, he may issue orders, but they will not be followed.” By saying this, Confucius has put before the ruling class the entire responsibility of their territory. Confucius' political philosophy is also rooted in his belief that a ruler should learn self-discipline, should govern his subjects by his own example, and should treat them with love and concern. “If the people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by punishments, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord.” (2:3, Analects).

            For Confucius, what characterized superior right to rule was the possession of de or virtue (Yang). Conceived of as a kind of moral power that allows one to win a following without recourse to physical force, such virtue also enabled the ruler to maintain good order in his state without troubling himself and by relying on loyal and effective deputies. Confucius claimed that, “He who governs by means of his virtue is, to use an analogy, like the pole-star: it remains in its place while all the lesser stars do homage to it.” (2:1, Analects) The way to maintain and cultivate such royal ‘virtue’ was through the practice and enactment of li or ‘rituals’—the ceremonies that defined and punctuated the lives of the ancient Chinese aristocracy. These ceremonies encompassed: the sacrificial rites performed at ancestral temples to express humility and thankfulness; the ceremonies of toasting, and gift exchange that bound together the aristocracy into a complex web of obligation and indebtedness (Ming Dong). However, virtue is not for the sake of getting material rewards. One should not be extravagant or self-serving. Self-cultivation is done for the success of the rest of society.

            The philosophy of Confucius demanded government morality, the responsible kingships with the occasional limitations, and the virtuousness of the ruler and everyone underneath him. The Analects 2.1 states that, “ Governing with virtue, can be compared to being the North Star: The star dwells in its place, and the multitude of stars pay it tribute.” I find that this excerpt brings Confucius’ philosophies to a strong finale. Those within the government must be that light in the sky for others to follow. That which allows them to shine brighter than other stars it the competence of their virtue. For without that virtue the people of your lands will wander aimlessly, and none will sing of your legacy. The most pressing matters are simple: respect your limits as a ruler, be a virtuoso, and prepare a government that is capable without you.

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